Jones, Nora L. Zorich, Lynn D. Dugan, Michael H. Davidson, John C. The primary purpose of the study was to determine the amounts of vitamins D and E needed to offset the effect of olestra on the availability of these vitamins.
Clinical chemistry and urinalysis parameters, vitamin B 12 absorption, and serum 1,dihydroxyvitamin D concentration were measured at wk 0 and 8. Laboratory evaluations showed no olestra-related effects. Subjects in all groups reported mild to moderately severe transient gastrointestinal symptoms. These symptoms did not affect study compliance or the integrity of the data. Olestra has the organoleptic and thermal properties of regular fat Bernhardt , Kester but is not digested or absorbed Mattson and Volpenhein , Miller et al.
Because olestra is lipophilic and nonabsorbed, it has the potential to interfere with the absorption of lipophilic nutrients Jandacek This interference occurs because a portion of the lipophilic nutrients present in the gastrointestinal GI 5 tract with olestra partitions into the olestra and thus becomes unavailable to the intestinal micelles to be transported to absorptive sites.
The absorption of water-soluble nutrients is not affected because such molecules do not partition into the lipophilic olestra. Olestra has been shown to affect the absorption of the fat-soluble dietary components in humans Jones et al. However, these studies have shown no effect of olestra on water-soluble nutrients, vitamin K function or overall vitamin D status.
Other studies have shown that olestra has no significant effect on the absorption of preformed vitamin A or triglyceride Daher et al. It has been shown in studies described elsewhere in this issue that it is possible to offset the effect of olestra on the availability of fat-soluble vitamins by adding extra amounts of the affected vitamins to foods prepared with olestra Cooper et al. The primary purpose of this study was to determine the amounts of vitamins D and E required to offset the effect of olestra on the absorption of these vitamins.
Because vitamin A stores can be measured directly in the pig, the amount of vitamin A required to offset the effect of olestra was determined from pig studies Cooper et al. Other purposes of the study were to determine the olestra dose response on the serum concentration of hydroyergocalciferol [25 OH D 2 ] when subjects consume vitamin D at the recommended dietary allowance RDA and to confirm that olestra does not affect the functional status of vitamin K or the absorption of water-soluble micronutrients.
To maximize the opportunity for olestra to affect the absorption of the nutrients, the subjects were required to eat olestra at every meal every day and were requested not to eat other foods between meals.
In addition, daily intakes of olestra substantially greater than expected intakes of olestra from savory snacks were used. The study design was basically the same as that of the dose-response study described in Schlagheck et al. Individuals from 18 to 44 y of age were chosen for the study because individuals in this age range have the largest estimated intake of olestra from savory snacks Webb et al. Signed informed consent was obtained from each subject before entry into the study.
Table 1 shows the group designations, olestra doses and target amounts of vitamins A, D and E added to the test foods. Only two levels of vitamin D were added; those were added to the diets containing low and high levels of the other two vitamins. Because depletion of vitamin A tissue stores in normal healthy individuals with inadequate vitamin A intake can take months Olson , and because olestra has no significant effect on the absorption of retinyl palmitate Daher et al.
However, serum retinol concentrations were measured to assure that the subject's vitamin A status was adequate. Test groups, olestra doses and amounts of vitamins A, D and E added to the diet To be included in the study, subjects were required to be in good health as determined by medical history, physical examination and laboratory measurements.
Exclusion criteria included pregnancy or lactation, chronic use of drugs that can potentially interfere with vitamin absorption, use of tanning booths or high sun exposure within the previous 2 mo, physician-recommended diet restrictions or greater than average caloric need.
Demographics and randomization parameters for subjects entering the study are shown in Table 2. The subjects were provided with all of their food for the 8-wk period. The basic diet was the same as that used in the dose-response study Schlagheck et al.
This change was made so that the amount of phylloquinone eaten by the subjects on the days before the blood draws would be essentially the same at all draws.
In the dose-response study, serum phylloquinone concentration varied with the phylloquinone content of the meal eaten the evening before the blood draw; this caused the serum phylloquinone concentrations to differ substantially at the different time points.
This menu was adjusted if necessary to provide more or less energy to meet the needs of individual subjects. Adjustments to the diet were made on the basis of body weights obtained weekly. Unlike subjects in the dose-response study, the subjects did not receive a vitamin D supplement. The intake of iron was targeted at This value was chosen so that the male's intake would not be excessive and the female's intake would not be so low as to place them at risk of iron deficiency.
The intake of vitamin B 12 —containing foods was allowed to fluctuate as necessary to meet the target for iron. Digestible fat, carotenoid and calcium intakes were held constant across the groups. To keep digestible energy content constant across the groups, the amounts of triglyceride displaced by olestra were added back as butter, margarine or vegetable oil. Dietary concentrations of nutrients were determined and the data were analyzed as described previously Schlagheck et al. If a subject missed more than one meal during the 2 d before a scheduled blood draw, or missed the dinner of the evening before the blood draw, data from that subject were excluded from the database for that time point.
The reasons for selecting these doses and their relation to the estimated intake of olestra from savory snacks was discussed previously Schlagheck et al.
The olestra used in preparing the test foods was the same as that used in the dose-response study and was heated in the same manner before being used to prepare the foods.
The test foods were potato chips, cookies and muffins, prepared as described by Schlagheck et al. Only muffins were used on the last day of the study because the total daily dose of olestra was to be eaten at breakfast on that day as part of the vitamin B 12 absorption test; muffins are a palatable vehicle for delivering large amounts of olestra. Food consumption was determined by weighing the items served and the portions remaining after a meal.
Olestra intake was determined from the amounts of olestra foods consumed and the analytically determined amounts of olestra in those foods. Because vitamins A and D are not stable at frying temperatures, they were added by pipetting them directly onto the finished food items. The amounts of vitamins and olestra in each food item were confirmed by analyzing representative samples of the food; the measured amounts were used in all calculations.
The stability of the vitamins in the foods was confirmed over periods exceeding the length of the study. Table 3 shows the times at which samples were collected and the measurements that were made on the samples.
Blood samples were collected by venipuncture after an overnight fast. Plasma and serum were separated and the samples were frozen until analyzed for nutrients. Urine collections h were made biweekly and the total volume was determined. Vitamin B 12 absorption was measured at base line and at the end of the study. All subjects were weighed and the females were given a pregnancy test weekly. Measurements used to determine the effect of olestra and added vitamins on the status of the fat-soluble nutrients were the same as those used in the dose-response study as was the method of measuring vitamin B 12 absorption Schlagheck et al.
In addition to serum iron concentration and hematology parameters, serum concentration of ferritin and total iron-binding capacity TIBC were used as measures of iron status.
Any undesirable symptom or change in health, reported either voluntarily or in response to a daily question about whether any changes in health had occurred, was recorded as an adverse event and was followed until the condition resolved. If the subject requested or the clinical staff judged it appropriate, the subject was seen by a physician. Hematology, clinical chemistry, urinalysis, serum lipids, serum carotenoids, markers of the status of the fat-soluble vitamins and vitamin B 12 absorption were measured as described by Schlagheck et al.
The data on urine and blood concentrations of vitamins and minerals were analyzed statistically by repeated-measures ANOVA. A two-factor ANOVA was performed at each time point to facilitate interpretation of the repeated analysis results.
Whenever the gender-by-treatment interaction was significant, group mean comparisons were based on the mean square error from the two-factor ANOVA and the protected least-significant-difference multiple-comparison test Carmer and Swanson , Welsch Otherwise comparisons were conducted on the combined data. Nonparametric analyses were conducted whenever Levene's test for homogeneity of variance Snedecor and Cochran or the Shapiro-Wilk statistic Shapiro and Wilk was significant.
Nonparametric pairwise comparisons were based on the protected Dunn's procedure Dunn To determine if vitamin B 12 absorption was affected by olestra, differences from base line were analyzed by paired t tests.
Dose-response effects were determined by linear regression of the data from appropriate groups. Nutrient intakes, clinical chemistry, hematology and urinalysis data were analyzed as described in Schlagheck et al.
The restoration level was taken as the inverse solution of the regression when the serum concentration of the particular vitamin was equal to the control concentration. Without this adjustment, it would have been impossible to determine the amount of vitamin E required to offset the olestra effect. All analyses were conducted at the two-tailed 0. One hundred of the subjects completed the study. The other withdrew because of flu symptoms and dissatisfaction with the diet.
Four subjects did not meet the consumption requirements for the 2 d preceding the wk-6 blood draw. Data from these subjects were excluded from analyses for that time point. Mean daily intakes of olestra, total energy, macronutrients and micronutrients, averaged across the 8 wk, are shown in Table 4.
Energy intake did not differ significantly across the groups. Cholesterol intake was constant across the groups. No significant differences in average daily intake of micronutrients were observed among the groups. Total vitamin A intake increased slightly with increasing olestra dose because the amount of corn oil margarine added to the diet had to be increased with the olestra dose to keep triglyceride intake constant; corn-oil margarine contains higher amounts of vitamin A than fat.
Vitamin D intake also increased slightly with increasing olestra dose because the corn oil margarine was fortified with vitamin D 3. The average daily iron intake for the female subjects was about Differences in iron intake among the groups were not significant for either males or females.
Olestra did not affect the well-being of the subjects in any medically significant way. There were no consistent intergroup differences or changes in clinical chemistry, hematology or urinalysis parameters that would indicate an adverse effect data not shown.
Subjects in all groups, including the placebo group, reported a variety of common GI symptoms. The symptoms included abdominal discomfort e.
The symptoms were transient in nature, abating and recurring. Symptom-days, a day in which one or more symptoms were experienced with more than usual frequency, as reported by the subjects, were used to characterize the symptoms because of their intermittent nature. The maximum possible number of symptom-days is obtained for a given symptom by multiplying the number of subjects per group by the number of days in the study.
The percentage of symptom-days for all symptoms was dose responsive with respect to olestra intake; the average severity was not, nor was the percentage of symptom-days for diarrhea or urgency. A symptom-day is defined as a day on which at least one GI symptom was reported.
No significant differences were found between males and females in the response of the measures of fat-soluble vitamin status with respect to either olestra or to the added vitamins; therefore the data were combined for group comparisons to increase the power of the study.
Olestra did not affect serum concentrations of total lipids, cholesterol or triglycerides. Week 0 and 8 data are shown in Table A in the Appendix. As expected, neither olestra nor added vitamin A affected serum retinol concentrations Table B in the Appendix. Vitamin D. The mean concentration for the control group increased about twofold during the study because the milk provided with the diet was fortified with vitamin D 2.
The solid lines represent the equations obtained from linear regression of the three measured points. The horizontal dashed lines represent the mean concentration for the control group. Serum 25 OH D 2 concentrations increased as the amount of vitamin D 2 in the diet was increased.
For each time point, the serum 25 OH D 2 concentrations encompassed the mean concentrations for the control group, indicated by dashed horizontal lines in the figures. The following equations were obtained by regressing the mean serum 25 OH D 2 concentrations on the amounts of added vitamin D:. These equations are represented by the solid lines in Figures 1A and 1B.
The average of the two, 0. No significant differences were found among the groups for serum concentrations of hydroxycholecalciferol [25 OH D 3 ] Table 7 and Table C in the Appendix.
The serum concentration of 25 OH D 3 decreased for all groups during the study. No significant differences were found among the groups for serum 1,dihydroxyvitamin D concentration [1,25 OH 2 D] Table 7. Vitamin E. Normalizing with respect to serum total lipids did not change this situation Table F in the Appendix. Statistical analysis showed that the base line was a significant covariate; therefore the data were adjusted.
Results obtained at wk 8 are shown in Figure 2B. The following equations were obtained by regressing the mean serum concentrations on the added amounts of TA:. Solving these equations for the restoration levels, as done for vitamin D, produced values of 1. The average of these two values, 2. Vitamin K. Organic farming methods of produce are designed to minimise contamination from pollutants in the growing environment. You should still wash organic produce carefully before eating.
What about processed organic foods? However, organic foods are still a more sensible choice for avoiding additives, as they generally contain lower levels of additives than non-organic products. Home Pregnancy Food and Fitness Food additives to avoid in pregnancy. Comments Please read our Chat guidelines.
Get offers now. During this nine-month period of bodily change, shift, and growth to put it mildly , your fluid demands skyrocket for the following reasons:. Liquids you should steer clear of are alcohol, coffee, tea, soft drinks, diet cola and other artificially sweetened drinks , and questionable herbal teas. Also realize that in some instances, you might need even more than the already increased amount: for example, if you're perspiring in hot weather, or when you're exercising, or if you have any type of fever, vomiting, or diarrhea.
Obviously, in the last cases, contact your doctor immediately. In this article, you will find: Calcium; iron Antioxidants; hydration; foods to avoid. Antioxidants; hydration; foods to avoid Blast Your Baby with Vitamins! Fruits rich in vitamin C: Oranges, grapefruit, mango, strawberries, papaya, raspberries, tangerines, kiwis, cantaloupe, guava, lemons, orange juice, grapefruit juice, and other vitamin C—fortified juices.
Vegetables rich in vitamin C: Broccoli, tomato, sweet potato, pepper, kale, cabbage, brussels sprouts, rutabaga, cauliflower, and spinach. Fruits rich in beta-carotene: Apricots, cantaloupe, papaya, mango, prunes, peaches, nectarines, tangerines, watermelon, and guava. Vegetables rich in beta-carotene: Broccoli, brussels sprouts, carrots, collard greens, escarole, dark green lettuce, spinach, sweet potatoes, kale, butternut squash, chicory, red peppers, and tomato juice.
Keep on Drinkin', Sippin', Gulpin', and Guzzlin'! During this nine-month period of bodily change, shift, and growth to put it mildly , your fluid demands skyrocket for the following reasons: You need to maintain your expanded blood supply and fluid volume. You see, through the blood and lymphatic system, water helps deliver oxygen and other nutrients all over your body.
Like always, fluids are needed to help wash down your food and assist in nutrient absorption.
0コメント