You may even make your own flashcards or buy some to help with this. Make sure to repeat them out loud. Hearing yourself repeat make it stick much more than merely repeating it silently in your head.
Once heard of a man who memorized the entire New Testament of the Bible because he constantly was reading it out loud. Print diagrams and complete them over and over again. Study the picture first, and then use a scanner to print the diagram from the book. Pulmonary infections are most commonly bacterial or viral. In the viral type, a pathogen replicates inside a cell and causes a disease, such as the flu.
Chronic diseases, such as asthma, are persistent and long-lasting. They can relapse and the patient can go into remission, only to suffer symptoms again at a later time.
The digestive system is a kind of processing plant inside the body. It takes in food and pushes it through organs and structures where the processing happens.
The fuels and nutrients we need are extracted, and the digestive system discards the rest. The oral cavity is bounded by the teeth, tongue, hard palate, and soft palate. These structures make up the mouth and play a key role in the first step of digestion: ingestion. This is where the teeth and tongue work with salivary glands to break down food into small masses that can be swallowed, preparing them for the journey through the alimentary canal.
The alimentary canal is a single continuous tube that includes the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. After food is chewed, made into a bolus, and swallowed, the action of the epiglottis routes the bolus into the esophagus.
From there, peristaltic waves propel ingested foodstuffs through the alimentary canal. Food that is chewed in the oral cavity then swallowed ends up in the stomach where it is further digested so its nutrients can be absorbed in the small intestine.
The salivary glands, liver and gall bladder, and the pancreas aid the processes of ingestion, digestion, and absorption. These accessory organs of digestion play key roles in the digestive process.
Each of these organs either secretes or stores substances that pass through ducts into the alimentary canal. Ingested food is chewed, swallowed, and passes through the esophagus into the stomach where it is broken down into a liquid called chyme. Chyme passes from the stomach into the duodenum. There it mixes with bile and pancreatic juices that further break down nutrients.
Finger-like projections called villi line the interior wall of the small intestine and absorb most of the nutrients. The remaining chyme and water pass to the large intestine, which completes absorption and eliminates waste. Diseases and disorders of the digestive system can involve infection or damage to organs and other tissues and structures. They may also affect actions of the digestive system, such as the sealing of the esophagus from stomach acids or the free flow of fluids through the bile ducts.
Symptoms can arise during digestion or may be chronic. The lymphatic system includes a network of vessels, ducts, and nodes, as well as organs and diffuse tissue that support the circulatory system. These structures help to filter harmful substances from the bloodstream. Organs of the lymphatic system, such as the spleen, thymus, and tonsils, house specialized cells that destroy the harmful pathogens. White blood cells play a key role.
Some rush to attack any harmful microbes that invade the body. Other white blood cells become specialists, adapted to fight particular pathogens. All of them work to keep the body as healthy as possible. The kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra are the primary structures of the urinary system. They filter blood and remove waste from the body in the form of urine. The size and position of lower urinary structures vary with male and female anatomy. The kidneys sit at the back of the abdominal wall and at the start of the urinary system.
These organs are constantly at work: Nephrons, tiny structures in the renal pyramids, filter gallons of blood each day. The kidneys reabsorb vital substances, remove unwanted ones, and return the filtered blood back to the body.
The kidneys filter unwanted substances from the blood and produce urine to excrete them. There are three main steps of urine formation: glomerular filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. These processes ensure that only waste and excess water are removed from the body.
Urine produced in the kidneys travels down the ureters into the urinary bladder. The bladder expands like an elastic sac to hold more urine. As it reaches capacity, the process of micturition, or urination, begins. Involuntary muscle movements send signals to the nervous system, putting the decision to urinate under conscious control. Diseases of the kidneys or bladder can compromise urinary system functions.
Below are some common diseases of the urinary system. The kidneys produce urine to eliminate waste. Kidney stones can form when mineral and acid salts in the urine crystallize and stick together. If the stone is small, it can pass easily through the urinary system and out of the body. A larger stone can get stuck in the urinary tract, however. A stuck kidney stone causes pain and can block the flow of urine. The female reproductive system includes external and internal genitalia.
Describe how endocrine function regulates the reproductive system. List the hormones that are common to males and females. Identify how endocrine function regulates the homeostasis ofdifferent organ systems in the body. Predict factors or situations affecting the endocrine system thatcould disrupt homeostasis. Module Digestive Structures and Functions Describe how material moves through the digestive system. Describe the major functions of the digestivesystem. Explain how mechanical and chemical digestion work togetherto produce absorbable nutrients.
Explain how nutrients are absorbed in the digestivesystem. Identify and discuss the histology and functions of theplicae circulares, villi, and microvilli. Identify organs of the digestive system based on positionand structure; identify the general function of each. Describe how secretions from the GI tract, salivary glands,pancreas and the liver work together to digest nutritive molecules in food. Describe how the stomach uses a combination of mechanical force and chemicals todigest food.
Describe the defecation reflex and the function of theinternal and external anal sphincters. Describe the functions of the different regions of the smallintestine. Describe the location of the parotid, submandibular, andsublingual glands and their respective ducts. Describe the pathway of the bolus from mouth to stomach,identifying major structures and describing their role in facilitating the process ofdeglutition swallowing.
Describe the pathway of the chyme through the stomach, identifying majorstructures and describing their adaptations and role in the various digestiveactivities. Describe the process of enzymatic hydrolysis for nutritiveorganic compounds Describe the role of bacteria living in the largeintestine.
Explain how different organ systems relate to one another to maintain homeostasis. Explain the process of deglutition, including the changes inposition of the glottis and larynx that prevent aspiration and peristalsis. Explain the regulation of gastric secretion in thecephalic phase, the gastric phase and the intestinal phase.
Identify and describe the histological structure and function of each of the four layers of the GI tract wall. Identify and discuss the functions of the gall bladder. Identify and discuss the functions of the large intestine andits structures.
Identify and discuss the functions of the liver and its structures. Identify and discuss the functions of the pancreas and its structures.
Integrate the levels of organization in the digestive system andtheir functional interconnections. List the organs and specific structures involved in theabsorption of each nutrient.
Relate the regional cell-level specializations withinthe digestive system to changing functions along the length of the GI tract.
Module Digestive Homeostasis Explain how the digestive system relates to other bodysystems to maintain homeostasis. Unit Cardiovascular System Module Cardiovascular System Introduction Explain how the cardiovascular system performs the function of moving material through the body. Identify major diseases associated with the cardiovascular system and their causes. Module Cardiovascular Structures and Functions Contrast the vasculature of the systemic and pulmonary circuits.
Define blood pressure BP and describe factors that influence blood pressure. Define venous return and describe how skeletal muscles and the respiratory pump help maintain venous return. Describe the cardiac cycle and all of its phases.
Describe the conduction system of the heart, including the role of the autonomic nervous system in regulating aspects of cardiac conduction. Describe the different modes of transport that molecules may take during capillary exchange.
Relate imbalances in capillary exchange to edema. Identify the waveforms in a normal ECG and relate them to the activity of the conduction system of the heart. Module Cardiovascular Levels of Organization Describe common changes of the circulatory system related to aging. Describe the anatomical structure of the arteries in the body and relate it with their function. Describe the anatomical structure of the veins in the body and relate it with their function.
Describe the anatomical structures of the heart and major blood vessels entering and leaving the heart. Relate the features of these structures to blood flow into, out of, and through the heart. Describe the anatomy of the aorta and its major branches and relate it with their functions.
Describe the basic process of hematopoiesis, where it occurs, and the significance of the pluripotent stem cell hemocytoblast in the process. Describe the features of blood that give it the characteristics of a connective tissue. Describe the functions for each of the five major types of leukocytes as well as the two major subtypes of lymphocytes T and B. Describe the overall composition of plasma, including the major types of plasma proteins, their functions, and where in the body they are produced.
Describe the phases of hemostasis. Describe the properties of the vessel wall layers tunica interna, media, externa and associate each with the function of different vessel types. Describe the structure and function of arterioles, metarterioles, capillaries, and venules. Describe the structure and function of platelets.
Identify the function of red blood cells and describe the life cycle of red blood cells, including how and where iron and heme are recycled, as well as the resulting breakdown products. Identify the microscopic features of erythrocytes red blood cells , the five types of leukocytes white blood cells , and thrombocytes platelets. Identify the three kinds of cells that make up the myocardium and describe the role of each in the physiology of muscle contraction.
Identify the types of cells associated with blood vessels and relate them to the different properties of blood vessels. Module Cardiovascular Homeostasis Describe factors that could disrupt homeostasis of the cardiovascular system and predict the types of homeostatic imbalances that would occur. Explain how the cardiovascular system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis through autoregulation.
Module Cardiovascular System Integration of Systems Describe the determinants of blood flow to an organ or tissue. Explain the role of the sympathetic nervous system in regulation of cardiac output. Identify the hormones involved in regulating blood volume flow and blood pressure and the role they play in these processes. Describe the mechanisms of pulmonary ventilation. Describe the structure and function of the the respiratory conducting zone and respiratory zone.
Describe how the structure of these macromolecules allow the structures of the respiratory system to perform their functions. Describe the changes in epithelial and connective tissue seen in various portions of the air passageways and relate these changes to function. Describe the four respiratory processes — ventilation, external respiration gas exchange at lung , internal respiration gas exchange at body tissues , and cellular respiration.
Explain the mechanisms of gas transport in the blood. Module Respiratory Homeostasis Explain and analyze respiratory homeostatic mechanisms. Module Urinary Structures and Functions Define countercurrent multiplication and countercurrent exchange, and describe how this relates to urine formation.
Describe the last portion of urine transport and collection for elimination. Describe the micturition reflex and the voluntary and involuntary neural control of micturition. Describe the process of tubular reabsoption including specific transport mechanisms, including active transport and osmosis. Describe the process of tubular secretion.
Identify and describe the functional process of urine formation, including filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Module Urinary Levels of Organization Define the chemical properties of urine and their functions.
Describe normal urine composition. Describe the anatomy and the detailed histology of the nephron. Describe the internal and external structure of the kidney, including its location, support structures and covering.
Identify the major blood vessels associated with the kidney. Identify, and describe the structure and location of, the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. Module Urinary Homeostasis Explain and analyze urinary homeostatic mechanisms.
Identify and describe the factors regulating and altering urine volume and composition, including the renin-angiotensin system and the roles of aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and the natriuretic peptides. Module Urinary System Integration of Systems Compare the excretory systems of the body Unit Lymphatic System Module Lymphatic System Introduction Describe the lymphatic system: list the major organs and structures, describe the major functions, and use anatomical planes and directional terms to identify organs and their relationships to each other.
Explore some common misconceptions about the lymphatic system. Recognize Big Ideas seen in the workings of individual components of the Lymphatic System and Immunity. Module Lymphatic Structures and Functions Compare and contrast interstitial fluid and lymph. Compare and contrast lymphatic vessels and blood vessels in terms of structure and function. Describe the mechanisms of lymph formation and circulation. Describe the path of lymph circulation. Describe early events in the history of immunology in relation to current understanding of immunity.
Describe the major functions of the lymphatic system. Define immunity. Identify dysfunction associated with the lymphatic circulation. Identify major diseases associated with the lymphatic system and their causes. Module Lymphatic Levels of Organization Compare and contrast innate defenses with adaptive defenses. Analyze ways in which the innate and adaptive immunity cooperate to enhance the overall resistance to disease. Compare and contrast interstitial fluid and lymph.
Describe the basic structure and cellular composition of lymphatic tissues and correlate them to the overall functions of the lymphatic system. Define and describe location of antigens and antigen receptors. Discuss the source of antigen receptor diversity. Define and describe location of major histocompatibility complex MHC. Define and describe the functional role of the important cytokines participating in the immune response.
The practice quizzes in Human Anatomy Atlas are perfect for reviewing the locations of important structures. Remember that study group you joined? Suggest a teaching circle with each person explaining one concept.
You could also give your parents a rundown about bone composition or teach your cat about the digestive system. Jane Langston adapted this method for the classroom, asking her students to write exam questions. Repetition and review is critical. You might find that digital notes are better than analog, or that you prefer some combination of the two.
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